The influence of SARS-CoV-2 on male reproduction and men's health.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, primarily affects the respiratory system by targeting the Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and TMPRSS2. However, these receptors are also present in other organs, including the testes, where a higher concentration of ACE2 receptors has been observed. This raises concerns about the potential impact of the virus on male fertility. AIMS: In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of SARS-CoV-2 on semen parameters by comparing samples during and after infection in the same patients. MATERIALS & METHOD: The study enrolled 51 individuals who had contracted COVID-19 and analysed various parameters related to sperm quality and quantity, including C-reactive protein, testosterone levels, total sperm concentration, motility and morphology. A comparison was made between these parameters during the initial infection with SARS-CoV-2 and after a 2- and 5-month recovery period. RESULTS: The results indicated that all of the mentioned parameters were significantly affected during COVID-19 infection (PCR-ct, CRP, WBCs LH, FSH and testosterone levels, p-value = .0001). Furthermore, the study assessed TC, TM and sperm morphology in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 and found that these parameters were also significantly influenced during the infection, (p-value = .0001; Morphology, p-value = .0004). We observed significant alterations in sperm count and morphology during infection, suggesting a potential negative impact on sperm quality. Additionally, lower hormone levels were observed during COVID-19 infection, possibly due to increased inflammatory cytokines. However, both hormones and inflammation markers returned to normal following recovery. Our findings indicate a statistically significant change in total sperm count, motility and morphology post-infection, which aligns with previous studies. Discussion, COVID-19 have a transient impact on sperm parameters and fertility, emphasizing the importance of further investigation into the long-term implications.

Patients with Hepatitis C Undergoing Direct-Acting Antiviral Treatment Have a Lower SARS-CoV-2 Infection Rate.

This study retrospectively analyzed the medical records of 602 patients with first-time positive results for the HCV nucleic acid test between 1 May 2021 and 31 March 2023, exploring the association between DAA treatment and SARS-CoV-2 infection. The results showed that 9.8% of HCV patients were co-infected with SARS-CoV-2. Gender, age, vaccination status, and HCV genotype did not significantly affect SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, patients undergoing DAA treatment showed significantly lower rates of SARS-CoV-2 infection and mortality compared to those not undergoing DAA treatment. The analysis also compared patients undergoing different DAA treatments, with Epclusa and Maviret showing superior protection against SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, this study explored the severity and mortality of SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients undergoing and having completed DAA treatment. It revealed that patients diagnosed with COVID-19 during DAA treatment experienced only mild symptoms, and none died, suggesting a potential protective effect of DAA treatment against severe outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The findings contribute to the understanding of the interplay between HCV, DAA treatment, and SARS-CoV-2 infection, highlighting the need for continued monitoring and healthcare measures for individuals with chronic conditions during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

SARS-CoV-2-mediated liver injury: pathophysiology and mechanisms of disease.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2-induced severe inflammatory response can be associated with severe medical consequences leading to multi-organ failure, including the liver. The main mechanism behind this assault is the aggressive cytokine storm that induces cytotoxicity in various organs. Of interest, hepatic stellate cells (HSC) respond acutely to liver injury through several molecular mechanisms, hence furthering the perpetuation of the cytokine storm and its resultant tissue damage. In addition, hepatocytes undergo apoptosis or necrosis resulting in the release of pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrogenic mediators that lead to chronic liver inflammation. AIMS: The aim of this review is to summarize available data on SARS-CoV-2-induced liver inflammation in addition to evaluate the potential effect of anti-inflammatory drugs in attenuating SARS-CoV-2-induced liver inflammation. METHODS: Thorough PubMed search was done to gather and summarize published data on SARS-CoV-2-induced liver inflammation. Additionally, various anti-inflammatory potential treatments were also documented. RESULTS: Published data documented SARS-CoV-2 infection of liver tissues and is prominent in most liver cells. Also, histological analysis showed various features of tissues damage, e.g., hepatocellular necrosis, mitosis, cellular infiltration, and fatty degeneration in addition to microvesicular steatosis and inflammation. Finally, the efficacy of the different drugs used to treat SARS-CoV-2-induced liver injury, in particular the anti-inflammatory remedies, are likely to have some beneficial effect to treat liver injury in COVID-19. CONCLUSION: SARS-CoV-2-induced liver inflammation is a serious condition, and drugs with potent anti-inflammatory effect can play a major role in preventing irreversible liver damage in COVID-19.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Ashwagandha) for the possible therapeutics and clinical management of SARS-CoV-2 infection: Plant-based drug discovery and targeted therapy.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has killed huge populations throughout the world and acts as a high-risk factor for elderly and young immune-suppressed patients. There is a critical need to build up secure, reliable, and efficient drugs against to the infection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus. Bioactive compounds of Ashwagandha [Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal] may implicate as herbal medicine for the management and treatment of patients infected by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The aim of the current work is to update the knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 infection and information about the implication of various compounds of medicinal plant Withania somnifera with minimum side effects on the patients' organs. The herbal medicine Withania somnifera has an excellent antiviral activity that could be implicated in the management and treatment of flu and flu-like diseases connected with SARS-CoV-2. The analysis was performed by systematically re-evaluating the published articles related to the infection of SARS-CoV-2 and the herbal medicine Withania somnifera. In the current review, we have provided the important information and data of various bioactive compounds of Withania somnifera such as Withanoside V, Withanone, Somniferine, and some other compounds, which can possibly help in the management and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Withania somnifera has proved its potential for maintaining immune homeostasis of the body, inflammation regulation, pro-inflammatory cytokines suppression, protection of multiple organs, anti-viral, anti-stress, and anti-hypertensive properties. Withanoside V has the potential to inhibit the main proteases (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2. At present, synthetic adjuvant vaccines are used against COVID-19. Available information showed the antiviral activity in Withanoside V of Withania somnifera, which may explore as herbal medicine against to SARS-CoV-2 infection after standardization of parameters of drug development and formulation in near future.

Molecular dynamics simulations highlight the altered binding landscape at the spike-ACE2 interface between the Delta and Omicron variants compared to the SARS-CoV-2 original strain.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) B.1.1.529 variant (Omicron), represents a significant deviation in genetic makeup and function compared to previous variants. Following the BA.1 sublineage, the BA.2 and BA.3 Omicron subvariants became dominant, and currently the BA.4 and BA.5, which are quite distinct variants, have emerged. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we investigated the binding characteristics of the Delta and Omicron (BA.1) variants in comparison to wild-type (WT) at the interface of the spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) and human angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) ectodomain. The primary aim was to compare our molecular modelling systems with previously published observations, to determine the robustness of our approach for rapid prediction of emerging future variants. Delta and Omicron were found to bind to ACE2 with similar affinities (-39.4 and -43.3 kcal/mol, respectively) and stronger than WT (-33.5 kcal/mol). In line with previously published observations, the energy contributions of the non-mutated residues at the interface were largely retained between WT and the variants, with F456, F486, and Y489 having the strongest energy contributions to ACE2 binding. Further, residues N440K, Q498R, and N501Y were predicted to be energetically favourable in Omicron. In contrast to Omicron, which had the E484A and K417N mutations, intermolecular bonds were detected for the residue pairs E484:K31 and K417:D30 in WT and Delta, in accordance with previously published findings. Overall, our simplified molecular modelling approach represents a step towards predictive model systems for rapidly analysing arising variants of concern.

Characterization of Entry Pathways, Species-Specific Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Residues Determining Entry, and Antibody Neutralization Evasion of Omicron BA.1, BA.1.1, BA.2, and BA.3 Variants.

The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants were first detected in November 2021, and several Omicron lineages (BA.1, BA.2, BA.3, BA.4, and BA.5) have since rapidly emerged. Studies characterizing the mechanisms of Omicron variant infection and sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies induced upon vaccination are ongoing by several groups. In the present study, we used pseudoviruses to show that the transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) enhances infection of BA.1, BA.1.1, BA.2, and BA.3 Omicron variants to a lesser extent than ancestral D614G. We further show that Omicron variants have higher sensitivity to inhibition by soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and the endosomal inhibitor chloroquine compared to D614G. The Omicron variants also more efficiently used ACE2 receptors from 9 out of 10 animal species tested, and unlike the D614G variant, used mouse ACE2 due to the Q493R and Q498R spike substitutions. Finally, neutralization of the Omicron variants by antibodies induced by three doses of Pfizer/BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine was 7- to 8-fold less potent than the D614G. These results provide insights into the transmissibility and immune evasion capacity of the emerging Omicron variants to curb their ongoing spread. IMPORTANCE The ongoing emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants with an extensive number of spike mutations poses a significant public health and zoonotic concern due to enhanced transmission fitness and escape from neutralizing antibodies. We studied three Omicron lineage variants (BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3) and found that transmembrane serine protease 2 has less influence on Omicron entry into cells than on D614G, and Omicron exhibits greater sensitivity to endosomal entry inhibition compared to D614G. In addition, Omicron displays more efficient usage of diverse animal species ACE2 receptors than D614G. Furthermore, due to Q493R/Q498R substitutions in spike, Omicron, but not D614G, can use the mouse ACE2 receptor. Finally, three doses of Pfizer/BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination elicit high neutralization titers against Omicron variants, although the neutralization titers are still 7- to 8-fold lower those that against D614G. These results may give insights into the transmissibility and immune evasion capacity of the emerging Omicron variants to curb their ongoing spread.

Covid 19-the 21st Century Pandemic: The Novel Coronavirus Outbreak and the Treatment Strategies.

COVID -19 a global pandemic that has brought all the greater global countries to a hook. The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak was first reported in Wuhan, China which then started spreading to different countries around the world. ACE2 receptors are present in various organs but the overexpression of ACE2 at lung epithelia makes them more vulnerable to respiratory symptoms. SARS-CoV-2 binds to ACE2 receptors for entry into host cells which may serve as potential target for future therapy.Repurposing of drugs are the present strategy undertaken as the SARS-CoV-2 shows similar respiratory distress symptoms as in the case of SARS and MERS. At present the antiviral medications and vaccines are at the early stages and may take few months to years, to achieve their complete efficacy to solve the public crisis. The technological advancements have brought passive immunisation, which is an anecdotal success, but the ideal approach to future outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 is done by vaccines that are under clinical trials. There are a large percentage of population under psychological crisis either due to the fear of infection or stress from the quarantine lives. High levels of viral loads at the initial stages cause higher chances of transmission hence immediate isolations and screening methods must be undertaken. This review mainly focuses on the treatment strategies followed with no definitive approval from authorities. This is an attempt to gather all the materialistic evidences available for now.

[Systemic and extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19]. / Manifestaciones sistémicas y extrapulmonares en la COVID-19.

Although fever and respiratory symptoms are the main clinical expression of COVID-19 disease, important extrapulmonary complications that affect the majority of the organs and systems may occur. Multisystemic involvement can mainly be attributed to the generalized location of ACE2 receptors throughout the body, which act as the main point of entry for the virus. Systemic manifestations may occasionally appear before the typical symptoms, although they generally occur later or are sequelae of the disease. Thromboembolic complications are concerning due to their frequency and severity; they are the result of a hypercoagulable state with multiple possible clinical manifestations. Cardiac, neurological, gastrointestinal, renal, endocrine-metabolic, skin, and ocular complications may occur. The manifestations and specific therapeutic aspects of COVID-19 disease in pregnant women as well as implications of the disease on children are discussed. The corresponding tests must be performed in all patients with a clinical suspicion of COVID-19 in order to confirm the diagnosis of the infection. The specific diagnostic tests that are indicative of involvement of different organs are guided based on clinical suspicion. These tests are conducted on an individual basis taking into account the isolation measures required and the severity of each case. Likewise, the corresponding treatment is administered according to criteria that generally similar to those for the general population.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 as a potential therapeutic target for COVID-19: A review.

As of August 16, 2021, there have been 207,173,086 confirmed cases and 4,361,996 deaths due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), and the pandemic remains a global challenge. To date, no effective and approved drugs are available for the treatment of COVID-19. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) plays a crucial role in the invasion into host cells by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological agent of COVID-19. Notably, ACE2 density is influenced by medical conditions, such as hypertension, or by drugs, including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), which can change the fate of SARS-CoV-2 infectivity. ACE2 is a target for these drugs and can be manipulated to limit the viral entry and replication within the cells. Different strategies aimed at blocking ACE2 with small molecules, peptides, and antibodies, or by neutralizing the virus through its competitive binding with human recombinant soluble ACE2 (hrsACE2) are currently under investigation. In this article, we review the current state of knowledge that emphasizes the need to find effective therapeutic agents against COVID-19 by exploiting ACE2 as a potential target. The increased soluble ACE2 levels and the application of hrsACE2 in patients with COVID-19 can be implemented to control the disease. It has not yet been established whether hypertension and other comorbidities, independent of age, have a direct role in COVID-19. Therefore, the use of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors, ACEIs and ARBs, should not be discontinued during COVID-19 treatment.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 as a potential therapeutic target for COVID-19:A review / 药物分析学报

As of August 16,2021,there have been 207,173,086 confirmed cases and 4,361,996 deaths due to the coronavirus disease(COVID-19),and the pandemic remains a global challenge.To date,no effective and approved drugs are available for the treatment of COVID-19.Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2(ACE2)plays a crucial role in the invasion into host cells by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2),the etiological agent of COVID-19.Notably,ACE2 density is influenced by medical con-ditions,such as hypertension,or by drugs,including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors(ACEIs)and angiotensin receptor blockers(ARBs),which can change the fate of SARS-CoV-2 infectivity.ACE2 is a target for these drugs and can be manipulated to limit the viral entry and replication within the cells.Different strategies aimed at blocking ACE2 with small molecules,peptides,and antibodies,or by neutralizing the virus through its competitive binding with human recombinant soluble ACE2(hrsACE2)are currently under investigation.In this article,we review the current state of knowledge that em-phasizes the need to find effective therapeutic agents against COVID-19 by exploiting ACE2 as a potential target.The increased soluble ACE2 levels and the application of hrsACE2 in patients with COVID-19 can be implemented to control the disease.It has not yet been established whether hypertension and other comorbidities,independent of age,have a direct role in COVID-19.Therefore,the use of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors,ACEls and ARBs,should not be discontinued during COVID-19 treatment.

Comparative Analysis of Susceptibility and Severity of COVID-19 in Countries from the Eastern and the Western World Till March '21.

Majority of the world's human population today is affected by Covid-19. The disease has not only exhibited differences in susceptibility among people of different countries, but also the mortality rate. In general, Western world has been reporting a greater number of infected cases than eastern countries. Even the mortality rates are quite high there. The aim of this study was to analyse the data available on the infectivity and mortality rates of Covid-19 in different countries till March'21 and then reviewed the literature to find reasons for the differences in susceptibility and severity in eastern and western countries. The reasons for the observed differences may be: (i) Eastern countries followed stricter modalities and got grace period to create better healthcare facilities to tackle COVID-19. This probably also slowed the transmission of virus and its evolution, (ii) Vaccination policies in the east may have provided some immunity due to cross reactivity, (iii) Frequent exposure to infections at young age in eastern countries might be helping in better immunity, (iv) Mutations in viral genome may be geography based and (v) Genetic differences in the immune system of the hosts with respect to ACE receptors and MHC may be playing an important role. In this article, an attempt has been made to put forth and discuss these plausible reasons along with suitable evidences. These findings may help in future research on the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of Covid-19.

Hypertension as a manifestation of COVID-19 pneumonia.

Several factors such as hypertension, bile duct disease, and age can affect the duration of COVID, which can lead to long COVID. Any course of coronavirus infection could have a diverse nature of clinical forms and should have a personalized approach.

Diverse Manifestations of COVID-19: Some Suggested Mechanisms.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of the novel respiratory disease COVID-19, has reached pandemic status and presents a wide range of manifestations of diverse magnitude, including fever, cough, shortness of breath, and damage to vital organs, such as the heart, lung, kidney, and brain. Normally, older individuals and those with underlying health issues are more at risk. However, about 40% of COVID-19 positive individuals are asymptomatic. This review aims to identify suggested mechanisms of diverse manifestations of COVID-19. Studies suggest that T cell-mediated immunity and specific and/or nonspecific immunity from other vaccines could protect against SARS-CoV-2. The potential role of cross-reacting antibodies to coronaviruses that cause the common cold, mumps virus, polio virus, and pneumococcal bacteria are also suggested to help protect against COVID-19. Decreased production of Type I interferons (IFN-α and IFN-ß) could also be linked to COVID-19 manifestations. Several studies suggest that ACE2 cell membrane receptors are involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the relationship between an abundance of ACE2 receptors and the infectivity of the virus is unknown. Unlocking these manifestation mysteries could be crucial as this could help researchers better understand the virulence, pathology, and immune responses associated with SARS-CoV-2, leading to the development of effective therapies and treatment plans.

SARS-CoV-2 infection: a global outbreak and its implication on public health.

BACKGROUND: A novel corona virus is formally named as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which results in causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It is the latest prevalent pandemic worldwide when compared to other infectious diseases like Avian flu, Middle East respiratory syndrome and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). MAIN BODY: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is currently occurring pandemic over world. It was emerged in Wuhan, China, in the end of December 2019 and spreading across worldwide. As the coronavirus is spreading easily through direct contact with infected people droplets, inhalation, and also air droplets, it hit up a huge amount of population even reported with death. Still, with small amounts of asymptomatic transmission between people it spreads throughout the globe. People need special care to protect from the transmission of disease. However, there are no drugs so far that shows efficacy; there is an immediate need for the development of vaccines. In order to decrease the COVID-19 cases, organizations rapidly involve in the preparation of vaccine and many vaccines have been developed by various countries. The governments took safety measures to control the spread of virus and also to minimize morbidity and mortality rate to least possible. CONCLUSION: The purpose of this review article is to increase our understanding of COVID-19 and facilitate the people to take a move in facing challenges of the world.

RNAi Technology and Investigation on Possible Vaccines to Combat SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

Coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, taking place globally, occurs as a result of the SARS-CoV-2 viral infection which has caused death of innumerable numbers of people and is responsible for a massive drop in the global economy. Millions of people are infected, and the death rate is also quite high in different countries. So, there is an urgent requirement of the invention of some effective and efficient drugs that can be effective against this deadly viral infection. The invention of new drugs and vaccine has become a matter of utmost importance to stop the mayhem of coronavirus pandemic. In the middle of such a deadly pandemic, the necessity of development of a vaccine is of high importance in this context. Among all the popular methods of vaccine development, the mRNA vaccines turned out to be the one of the most versatile vaccine with quick responses. However, in this review, we have explained all the possible types of vaccines available including DNA vaccines, RNA vaccines, and live and attenuated vaccines. Their effectiveness, importance, and application of the vaccines against the SARS-CoV-2 virus have been discussed. Research is also being conducted in the field of gene silencing, and one of the best possible ways to combat the virus at the molecular level is by applying RNAi technology. The modified siRNA molecules can be used to silence the gene expression of the virus. A summarization of the virus's behavior, characteristics, and the methods by which RNAi technology can be administered to control the virus is depicted in this study.

The Ineluctable Role of ACE-2 Receptors in SARS COV-2 Infection and Drug Repurposing as a Plausible SARS COV-2 Therapy: A Concise Treatise.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the etiological agent for the COVID-19 infectious disease that spreads via the respiratory route and has reached a drastic level of a global pandemic. Symptoms of COVID-19 may vary from mild (fever, dry cough, shortness of breath) to severe pneumonia-like respiratory symptoms as exacerbation of disease occurs. Unlike SARS-CoV, the SARSCoV- 2 has a higher binding affinity to ACE-2 receptors, which signifies its higher transmission rate from person to person. Even though ACE-2 is significant in the reninangiotensin- aldosterone system (RAAS) regulation that exhibits protection to various organs, it plays a significant role in COVID-19 disease pathogenesis. Viral interferences with the ACE-2 peptidase activity are found in SARS-CoV-2 infected patients leading to pro-inflammatory responses, hypertension and multi-organ damage. Angiotensinconverting enzyme-2 is constrained to a variety of organ systems, but surface ACE-2 receptors on lung epithelia are largely affected, which lead to pathological alterations in lung histology which may progress to respiratory failure. The viral tropism mainly occurs by the attachment to the angiotensin-converting enzymes-2 receptors in the host cell; thus drugs targeting ACE-2 expressions may arise as the future therapeutic strategy to combat COVID-19 infections. The innovative approach of repurposing drugs has shown temporary effectiveness to curb the rising pandemic. This article mainly focuses on the prominence of ACE-2 receptors which are expressed during the COVID infections and the repurposing strategy of available drug therapies.

Cross Talk between COVID-19 and Breast Cancer.

Cancer patients are more susceptible to COVID-19; however, the prevalence of COVID-19 in different types of cancer is still inconsistent and inconclusive. Here, we delineate the intricate relationship between breast cancer and COVID-19. Breast cancer and COVID-19 share the involvement of common comorbidities, hormonal signalling pathways, gender differences, rennin- angiotensin system (RAS), angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV). We also shed light on the possible effects of therapeutic modalities of COVID-19 on breast cancer outcomes. Briefly, we conclude that breast cancer patients are more susceptible to COVID-19 in comparison with their normal counterparts. Women are more resistant to the occurrence and severity of COVID-19. Increased expressions of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are correlated with occurrence and severity of COVID-19, but higher expression of ACE2 and lower expression of TMPRSS2 are prognostic markers for overall disease free survival in breast cancer. The ACE2 inhibitors and ibuprofen therapies for COVID-19 treatment may aggravate the clinical condition of breast cancer patients through chemo-resistance and metastasis. Most of the available therapeutic modalities for COVID-19 were also found to exert positive effects on breast cancer outcomes. Besides drugs in clinical trend, TMPRSS2 inhibitors, estrogen supplementation, androgen deprivation and DPP-IV inhibitors may also be used to treat breast cancer patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. However, drug-drug interactions suggest that some of the drugs used for the treatment of COVID-19 may modulate the drug metabolism of anticancer therapies which may lead to adverse drug reaction events.

COVID-19: a new emerging respiratory disease from the neurological perspective.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a challenging public health catastrophe worldwide. The newly emerged disease spread in almost all countries and infected 100 million persons worldwide. The infection is not limited to the respiratory system but involves various body systems and may lead to multiple organ failure. Tissue degenerative changes result from direct viral invasion, indirect consequences, or through an uncontrolled immune response. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spreads to the brain via hematogenous and neural routes accompanied with dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier. The involvement of the central nervous system is now suspected to be among the main causes of death. The present review discusses the historical background of coronaviruses, their role in previous and ongoing pandemics, the way they escape the immune system, why they are able to spread despite all undertaken measures, in addition to the neurological manifestations, long-term consequences of the disease, and various routes of viral introduction to the CNS.

Biosensors as a future diagnostic approach for COVID-19.

Biosensors are important devices in clinical diagnostics, food processing, and environmental monitoring for detecting various analytes, especially viruses. These biosensors provide rapid and effective instruments for qualitative and quantitative detection of infectious diseases in real-time. Here, we report the development of biosensors based on various techniques. Additionally, we will explain the mechanisms, advantages, and disadvantages of the most common biosensors that are currently used for viral detection, which could be optical (e.g., surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)) and electrochemical biosensors. Based on that, this review recommends methods for efficient, simple, low-cost, and rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 (the causative agent of COVID-19) that employ the two types of biosensors depending on attaching hemoglobin ß-chain and binding of specific antibodies with SARS-CoV-2 antigens, respectively.

Update on neurological symptoms in patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2.

Novel coronavirus 19 (COVID-19) is the latest and most intense epidemic, which is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). In addition to causing respiratory symptoms, SARS-CoV-2 can have severe effects on the nervous system. Clinically, COVID-19 patients have been reported ranging from mild hypogeusia and hyposmia to severe neurological disorders, such as encephalopathy, encephalitis, strokes, and seizures syndrome. However, the pathological mechanisms of this SARS-CoV-2 neuro aggressiveness remain unclear, so it is of great significance to explore the neurological effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection. To facilitate clinicians to timely recognize the manifestations of COVID-19 patients with neurological injury and timely treatment, the author hereby reviews the latest research progress in the possible pathways, clinical manifestations, and pathogenesis of COVID-19 patients with nerve injury.